薩繆爾·克萊門斯,也就是大名鼎鼎的馬克·吐溫,有生之年沒有經歷過1929年的銀行擠兌和市場崩潰,沒有見證過1987年的“黑色星期一”(Black Monday)和2008年的經濟大衰退(Great Recession),更不知道最近硅谷銀行(Silicon Valley Bank)倒閉所引發的銀行業危機。但他有一句名言:“歷史不會重演,但總是驚人的相似。”這句話卻能夠非常精準地總結從他生活的時代至今出現過的金融恐慌。
硅谷銀行倒閉在銀行系統產生的影響,與20世紀80年代末的儲貸危機所引發的恐慌,似乎驚人的相似。無論當時還是現在,美聯儲(Federal Reserve)都進行了快速加息,以應對惡性通脹。這種策略當初發揮了作用,現在似乎依舊有效,但卻是以對利息敏感的資產貶值為代價,例如美國國債和抵押貸款擔保證券等,這些資產在許多銀行的資產負債表中占有很大的比重。除了寬松的監管以外,銀行還存在高管管理不善和過度依賴一類儲戶等問題,而儲貸危機的噩夢再現的可能性,令許多區域銀行的高管夜不能寐。
2008年和大金融危機(Great Financial Crisis)的記憶,影響了監管部門對新危機的應對,尤其是放寬在2010年通過的《多德-弗蘭德華爾街改革和消費者保護法案》(Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act)的監管,被認為是硅谷銀行倒閉的罪魁禍首。但正如億萬富翁投資者瑞·達里歐和拉里·芬克在危機發生后不久所說的那樣,硅谷銀行倒閉后引發區域銀行倒閉潮的可能性,令我們回想起儲貸危機的諸多細節。
芬克上周在一年一度給股東的信中寫道,“我們尚不清楚”,最近這次危機的后果是否“會蔓延到整個美國區域銀行業(與儲貸危機類似),使更多的銀行被接管和倒閉。”但與20世紀80年代的儲貸危機一樣,最近硅谷銀行以及銀門銀行(Silvergate Bank)和簽名銀行(Signature Bank)的倒閉,都是美國區域銀行的損失,所引發的系統性風險,可能令美國政府冒險動用納稅人的錢。
由于社交媒體的崛起,已經破產的硅谷銀行和簽名銀行,還要面臨20世紀80年代儲貸危機時的首席執行官們可能從未想象過的問題。但正如投資公司Sanders Morris Harris的董事長喬治·鮑爾在接受《財富》雜志采訪時所說的那樣:
“硅谷銀行的危機可能在許多方面,與儲貸危機有巨大區別,但這場危機背后卻存在一個同樣的算數問題——當儲戶或者貸款商失去信心時,長期杠桿一定會立即引發災難。”
《財富》雜志就歷史上的金融危機和當前銀行業動蕩之間的相似之處和差異,采訪了經濟學家、美聯儲的前官員和投資經理等。加息再加上中小型區域金融機構倒閉帶來的系統性風險,與儲貸危機有許多相似之處。這種金融歷史上的相似之處值得警惕,因為按照美國政府問責辦公室(U.S. General Accountability Office)統計,儲貸危機導致1980年至1995年的15年間,全美1,000多家貸款機構破產,最終使納稅人損失超過1,600億美元。
歷史回顧和道德風險
一條簡單的歷史教訓:儲貸協會最早于1831年成立于賓夕法尼亞州,當時銀行還不提供住房抵押貸款。這些機構又被稱為“儲貸機構”,支持社區聯合,相互幫助購買住房。
許多儲貸機構提供的抵押貸款利率低于銀行,但相應地存款利率也更低。這些貸款機構憑借低成本,在美國銀行系統中的地位日益提高,到1932年,美國通過了《聯邦住房貸款銀行法案》(Federal Home Loan Bank Act),旨在監管儲貸行業,以幫助低收入美國人實現擁有住房的目標。兩年后,聯邦儲蓄和貸款保險公司(Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation)成立,為持續擴張的儲貸機構提供存款保險。
到1980年,美國已經有接近4,000家儲貸機構,總資產達到6,000億美元,其中包括當時美國接近一半未償還的住房抵押貸款。1979年,保羅·沃爾克擔任美聯儲主席時,決心解決現在經濟學家們所說的“大通脹”(Great Inflation)。沃爾克開始以前所未有的速度和力度加息,導致時任美國總統吉米·卡特在其唯一一個任期后期不得不承受殘酷的經濟衰退。現任美聯儲主席杰羅姆·鮑威爾似乎主要也采取了這種策略來應對通脹。幾年內(并且經過有一次短期衰退后),美國進入了物價穩定的“大緩和”(Great Moderation)時期,但在那之前,儲貸機構的一切都發生了變化。
康拉德·阿爾特指出,隨著利率大幅上漲,儲貸機構持有的以抵押貸款為主的固定利率資產貶值。阿爾特曾經擔任美國參議院銀行業委員會(U.S. Senate Banking Committee)的顧問,在1989年至1996年期間曾經擔任美國貨幣監理署(Office of the Comptroller of the Currency)的幕僚長和高級副主計長,是終結儲貸危機的功臣之一。“與此同時,他們的融資成本上漲,因此為了吸引存款而不得不增加支出。最終形成了我們所說的負利差。”這意味著這些儲貸機構開始虧損,并無力償債。
阿爾特后來成立了投資公司Klaros集團(Klaros Group)。他表示,當時作為一名年輕律師,他參與了應對儲貸危機,并且他發現“在幾乎每一家儲貸機構,都存在許多非常不完善的行為,比如非常輕率的貸款等活動。”有越來越多與硅谷銀行有關的令人討厭的消息曝出,例如為吸引灣區的客戶,贈送高檔紅酒和報銷滑雪旅行的所有費用等。同樣,儲貸機構招攬客戶的手段是“以賽馬、高爾夫課程和藝術品作為抵押提供貸款”,他們生活奢侈,“購買公務機,這些都是真實存在的情況。”
阿爾特稱,他認為在20世紀80年代,儲貸機構普遍存在管理不善的問題,因為這些垂死掙扎的公司,獲得了監管者毫不動搖的支持,而儲貸機構的高管們都很清楚這一點。
他說:“如果你有一家公司既沒有股權也沒有經濟價值,為什么不賭一把呢?如果你賭輸了,存款保險機構[聯邦儲蓄和貸款保險公司]可以兜底,畢竟你沒有在公司中投入任何資金,因此也就不會蒙受任何損失。如果你賭贏了,你可以說:‘嘿,太好了,運氣真好。’因此這種行為在儲貸行業變得日益猖獗。”
阿爾特表示,如果他現在是一名銀行監管者,他肯定就會擔心“道德風險”問題,即政府救助倒閉的銀行會鼓勵銀行領導者承擔過多風險。與硅谷銀行的情況一樣,銀行所有者和管理者知道其已經資不抵債,尤其是他們很清楚政府不會允許他們破產。阿爾特稱,這可能導致管理者“承擔過多風險”。
熟悉的宏觀經濟方程
2021年,在新冠疫苗問世后,美國經濟重啟,恰逢美國通脹率達到自20世紀80年代沃爾克上任以來的最高水平,而為了給經濟降溫和抑制通脹,鮑威爾采取了快速加息的策略,加息速度超過了任何前任。與20世紀80年代一樣,隨著利率上漲,固定利率資產(國債和抵押貸款擔保證券)在銀行資產負債表中的比重下降。因此,據美國聯邦存款保險公司(FDIC)統計,截至2022年年底,美國銀行的貸款組合損失超過6,000億美元。
硅谷銀行的資產貶值尤其嚴重。到2022年年底,在硅谷銀行的長期抵押貸款擔保證券中,90%的債券資產收益率低于2%。利率上漲意味著現在這些債券的價值更低,因此在今年3月初,當擔心硅谷銀行倒閉的儲戶爭相到該銀行取款時,它卻沒有足夠的現金。
康拉德·阿爾特指出,目前,銀行再一次面臨利率上漲、長期固定利率資產貶值和存款存在壓力的局面。“因此,我們正在重蹈覆轍。回顧這條路,你可能會產生這樣合理的猜測:‘嗯,這開始變得與儲貸危機有許多相似之處。’”
致命的業務過度集中
儲貸危機和硅谷銀行與簽名銀行面臨的問題還有另外一個重要的相似之處,那就是業務過度集中于一個行業。儲貸機構幾乎完全專注于提供抵押貸款,在20世紀80年代,當利率上浮導致房價下跌時,這種策略開始出現問題。而硅谷銀行主要服務科技公司,這些公司通常沒有經受過考驗,也沒有盈利,因此當利率上漲和風投融資速度放慢時,它們就會面臨風險。Sanders Morris Harris公司的鮑爾稱,銀行業務過度集中于任何一個行業,“最終會導致金融過度,引發大災難”。
他還表示,硅谷銀行與儲貸機構的狀況有一個關鍵的相似之處,引發了最近的銀行擠兌。
他說:“儲貸危機時期的銀行貸款機構和硅谷銀行等科技貸款機構,將自己樹立成經濟中的典型,它們都心照不宣地要求貸款方將存款存在貸款機構。”他解釋道,為了讓儲戶繼續投資,儲貸機構和硅谷銀行都額外提供了許多華而不實的條件。“你不能強迫借款人將資金存到你的貸款機構,因為這是違法的,但你能夠通過不斷勸說,影響他們這樣做。”比如,硅谷銀行向客戶提供亞馬遜(Amazon)的云計算信用積分、DocuSign服務折扣,甚至高檔紅酒。
鮑爾表示,這種經營策略使硅谷銀行能夠迅速吸引存款,因為其儲戶集中,主要是人脈廣泛的科技公司開立的大額儲蓄賬戶。“擁有大額存款的儲戶在聽到銀行倒閉的傳聞后,選擇分散存款,突然之間,銀行的存款狀況從四分之三滿的杯子變成了只有八分之一滿。這時,銀行變得無力償債。”
一些關鍵區別
雖然儲貸危機和當前的銀行業動蕩有許多相似之處,但兩者之間還是存在一些重要的區別。或許最重要的區別是,現在的監管機構有能力介入危機,挽救局面。
1983年,在儲貸危機期間,監管機構估計,為了償付存在倒閉的貸款機構的有保險儲戶,大約需要250億美元。但美聯儲歷史學家表示,儲貸機構的保險基金、聯邦儲蓄和貸款保險公司僅有60億美元儲備資金。
科羅拉多大學丹佛分校(University of Colorado-Denver)的講師、Econ One Research的總經理邁克爾·J·奧蘭多對《財富》雜志表示:“當時,面對迅速惡化的問題,這些機構的存款保險嚴重不足,這影響了監管者的選擇。”但奧蘭多稱,現在,監管者有大量“滅火的手段”,至少在近期內可以幫助減少銀行倒閉產生的經濟影響。奧蘭多同時是美國聯邦儲備系統(Federal Reserve System)的研究經濟學家。
儲貸危機與硅谷銀行和簽名銀行破產之間的另外一個區別是最近銀行擠兌的速度。社交媒體和銀行業應用程序的流行,讓儲戶能夠快速發現銀行的問題,并取走資金。
科羅拉多州立大學(Colorado State University)的經濟學教授斯蒂芬·韋勒告訴《財富》雜志:“[硅谷銀行]的擠兌主要來自科技行業,科技行業的從業者精通社交媒體,而且他們有強大的能力在48小時內取走所有可用現金。而在儲貸危機期間,擠兌的時間長達數周、數月甚至數年。這是一個慢速崩潰過程。”
有專家甚至指出,硅谷銀行可能經歷了史上第一次因社交媒體導致的銀行擠兌,他們說,知名風險投資者曾經迅速警告投資組合公司取走存款。Bahnsen Group的首席投資官大衛·巴恩森對《財富》雜志表示,他認為“毫無疑問”,是強大的風險投資者“助長了銀行擠兌”。這是一個快速的過程。
后果:大規模整合
韋勒教授是區域經濟發展研究所(Regional Economic Development Institute)的聯席所長。他警告,在所有金融機構當中,最近的危機可能對小型銀行的影響最為嚴重。硅谷銀行倒閉暴露出聯邦存款保險公司有限的保險只能夠為小型金融機構兜底,無法為更具有系統重要性的機構提供保障。聯邦存款保險公司的保險對儲戶的保額不超過25萬美元。他說:“大銀行擁有小銀行不具備的優勢,”那就是幾乎“一定”會得到政府的全力救助。“大而不能倒,使大銀行擁有壓倒性的吸引力。”
自從儲貸危機爆發以來,小型社區銀行的數量持續減少。據聯邦存款保險公司統計,1980年,全美由聯邦存款保險公司承保的銀行超過14,000家,2021年卻不足4,500家。
韋勒表示,這是一個嚴重的問題。他在一項研究中分析了社區和區域銀行對美國經濟的積極影響,尤其是在大型金融機構覆蓋不足的農村地區。
2022年,韋勒與貝爾蒙特大學(Belmont University)的盧克·佩塔克以及威斯康辛大學麥迪遜分校(University of Wisconsin-Madison)的特莎·康羅伊聯合發表了一篇論文。韋勒發現,擁有更多社區銀行的地區“整體上區域經濟更繁榮,并且提高了區域經濟承受宏觀經濟沖擊的韌性。”社區銀行帶來的好處包括企業倒閉減少,房價更有彈性,就業增長更強勁。
他說:“我們的研究顯示,[資產規模]10億美元以下的社區銀行,實際上對于創業和就業增長至關重要,尤其是在美國農村地區。正是這些銀行,可能因為此次危機而最終倒閉。”
然而,今年3月21日,美國財政部的部長珍妮特·耶倫對游說團體美國銀行家協會(American Bankers Association)表示,如果“小型銀行機構”面臨“存款擠兌可能導致危機蔓延”,她可能會采取“類似措施”來阻止儲戶擠兌。
《財富》雜志采訪的多位專家稱,可悲的是,小銀行的悲劇是可以避免的。阿爾特曾經在儲貸危機后協助監管機構起草立法。他表示,他的建議在20世紀80年代末和90年代初經常被忽視,而且那些錯失的機會目前正在對美國經濟產生影響。
他提到曾經在立法中要求銀行測試加息環境下的資產負債表狀況。他說:“這個要求被寫入法律。但實際上沒有機構執行。現在,立法中依舊沒有與利率風險有關的內容。因此,這就是一條我們很快就會忘記的教訓。事實上,我們早已知道一直以來都存在監管空白,這應該引起監管機構的重視,但事實卻并非如此。”
在最近的銀行倒閉風波之后,回顧儲貸危機得到的教訓就是,監管機構、高管和投資者會忘記金融業歷史上最重要的教訓,并重蹈覆轍。
鮑爾說:“經濟記憶的半衰期約為三至五年。之后人們就會忘記以前的風險,重新開始盲目借貸的循環。”(財富中文網)
譯者:劉進龍
審校:汪皓
薩繆爾·克萊門斯,也就是大名鼎鼎的馬克·吐溫,有生之年沒有經歷過1929年的銀行擠兌和市場崩潰,沒有見證過1987年的“黑色星期一”(Black Monday)和2008年的經濟大衰退(Great Recession),更不知道最近硅谷銀行(Silicon Valley Bank)倒閉所引發的銀行業危機。但他有一句名言:“歷史不會重演,但總是驚人的相似。”這句話卻能夠非常精準地總結從他生活的時代至今出現過的金融恐慌。
硅谷銀行倒閉在銀行系統產生的影響,與20世紀80年代末的儲貸危機所引發的恐慌,似乎驚人的相似。無論當時還是現在,美聯儲(Federal Reserve)都進行了快速加息,以應對惡性通脹。這種策略當初發揮了作用,現在似乎依舊有效,但卻是以對利息敏感的資產貶值為代價,例如美國國債和抵押貸款擔保證券等,這些資產在許多銀行的資產負債表中占有很大的比重。除了寬松的監管以外,銀行還存在高管管理不善和過度依賴一類儲戶等問題,而儲貸危機的噩夢再現的可能性,令許多區域銀行的高管夜不能寐。
2008年和大金融危機(Great Financial Crisis)的記憶,影響了監管部門對新危機的應對,尤其是放寬在2010年通過的《多德-弗蘭德華爾街改革和消費者保護法案》(Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act)的監管,被認為是硅谷銀行倒閉的罪魁禍首。但正如億萬富翁投資者瑞·達里歐和拉里·芬克在危機發生后不久所說的那樣,硅谷銀行倒閉后引發區域銀行倒閉潮的可能性,令我們回想起儲貸危機的諸多細節。
芬克上周在一年一度給股東的信中寫道,“我們尚不清楚”,最近這次危機的后果是否“會蔓延到整個美國區域銀行業(與儲貸危機類似),使更多的銀行被接管和倒閉。”但與20世紀80年代的儲貸危機一樣,最近硅谷銀行以及銀門銀行(Silvergate Bank)和簽名銀行(Signature Bank)的倒閉,都是美國區域銀行的損失,所引發的系統性風險,可能令美國政府冒險動用納稅人的錢。
由于社交媒體的崛起,已經破產的硅谷銀行和簽名銀行,還要面臨20世紀80年代儲貸危機時的首席執行官們可能從未想象過的問題。但正如投資公司Sanders Morris Harris的董事長喬治·鮑爾在接受《財富》雜志采訪時所說的那樣:
“硅谷銀行的危機可能在許多方面,與儲貸危機有巨大區別,但這場危機背后卻存在一個同樣的算數問題——當儲戶或者貸款商失去信心時,長期杠桿一定會立即引發災難。”
《財富》雜志就歷史上的金融危機和當前銀行業動蕩之間的相似之處和差異,采訪了經濟學家、美聯儲的前官員和投資經理等。加息再加上中小型區域金融機構倒閉帶來的系統性風險,與儲貸危機有許多相似之處。這種金融歷史上的相似之處值得警惕,因為按照美國政府問責辦公室(U.S. General Accountability Office)統計,儲貸危機導致1980年至1995年的15年間,全美1,000多家貸款機構破產,最終使納稅人損失超過1,600億美元。
歷史回顧和道德風險
一條簡單的歷史教訓:儲貸協會最早于1831年成立于賓夕法尼亞州,當時銀行還不提供住房抵押貸款。這些機構又被稱為“儲貸機構”,支持社區聯合,相互幫助購買住房。
許多儲貸機構提供的抵押貸款利率低于銀行,但相應地存款利率也更低。這些貸款機構憑借低成本,在美國銀行系統中的地位日益提高,到1932年,美國通過了《聯邦住房貸款銀行法案》(Federal Home Loan Bank Act),旨在監管儲貸行業,以幫助低收入美國人實現擁有住房的目標。兩年后,聯邦儲蓄和貸款保險公司(Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation)成立,為持續擴張的儲貸機構提供存款保險。
到1980年,美國已經有接近4,000家儲貸機構,總資產達到6,000億美元,其中包括當時美國接近一半未償還的住房抵押貸款。1979年,保羅·沃爾克擔任美聯儲主席時,決心解決現在經濟學家們所說的“大通脹”(Great Inflation)。沃爾克開始以前所未有的速度和力度加息,導致時任美國總統吉米·卡特在其唯一一個任期后期不得不承受殘酷的經濟衰退。現任美聯儲主席杰羅姆·鮑威爾似乎主要也采取了這種策略來應對通脹。幾年內(并且經過有一次短期衰退后),美國進入了物價穩定的“大緩和”(Great Moderation)時期,但在那之前,儲貸機構的一切都發生了變化。
康拉德·阿爾特指出,隨著利率大幅上漲,儲貸機構持有的以抵押貸款為主的固定利率資產貶值。阿爾特曾經擔任美國參議院銀行業委員會(U.S. Senate Banking Committee)的顧問,在1989年至1996年期間曾經擔任美國貨幣監理署(Office of the Comptroller of the Currency)的幕僚長和高級副主計長,是終結儲貸危機的功臣之一。“與此同時,他們的融資成本上漲,因此為了吸引存款而不得不增加支出。最終形成了我們所說的負利差。”這意味著這些儲貸機構開始虧損,并無力償債。
阿爾特后來成立了投資公司Klaros集團(Klaros Group)。他表示,當時作為一名年輕律師,他參與了應對儲貸危機,并且他發現“在幾乎每一家儲貸機構,都存在許多非常不完善的行為,比如非常輕率的貸款等活動。”有越來越多與硅谷銀行有關的令人討厭的消息曝出,例如為吸引灣區的客戶,贈送高檔紅酒和報銷滑雪旅行的所有費用等。同樣,儲貸機構招攬客戶的手段是“以賽馬、高爾夫課程和藝術品作為抵押提供貸款”,他們生活奢侈,“購買公務機,這些都是真實存在的情況。”
阿爾特稱,他認為在20世紀80年代,儲貸機構普遍存在管理不善的問題,因為這些垂死掙扎的公司,獲得了監管者毫不動搖的支持,而儲貸機構的高管們都很清楚這一點。
他說:“如果你有一家公司既沒有股權也沒有經濟價值,為什么不賭一把呢?如果你賭輸了,存款保險機構[聯邦儲蓄和貸款保險公司]可以兜底,畢竟你沒有在公司中投入任何資金,因此也就不會蒙受任何損失。如果你賭贏了,你可以說:‘嘿,太好了,運氣真好。’因此這種行為在儲貸行業變得日益猖獗。”
阿爾特表示,如果他現在是一名銀行監管者,他肯定就會擔心“道德風險”問題,即政府救助倒閉的銀行會鼓勵銀行領導者承擔過多風險。與硅谷銀行的情況一樣,銀行所有者和管理者知道其已經資不抵債,尤其是他們很清楚政府不會允許他們破產。阿爾特稱,這可能導致管理者“承擔過多風險”。
熟悉的宏觀經濟方程
2021年,在新冠疫苗問世后,美國經濟重啟,恰逢美國通脹率達到自20世紀80年代沃爾克上任以來的最高水平,而為了給經濟降溫和抑制通脹,鮑威爾采取了快速加息的策略,加息速度超過了任何前任。與20世紀80年代一樣,隨著利率上漲,固定利率資產(國債和抵押貸款擔保證券)在銀行資產負債表中的比重下降。因此,據美國聯邦存款保險公司(FDIC)統計,截至2022年年底,美國銀行的貸款組合損失超過6,000億美元。
硅谷銀行的資產貶值尤其嚴重。到2022年年底,在硅谷銀行的長期抵押貸款擔保證券中,90%的債券資產收益率低于2%。利率上漲意味著現在這些債券的價值更低,因此在今年3月初,當擔心硅谷銀行倒閉的儲戶爭相到該銀行取款時,它卻沒有足夠的現金。
康拉德·阿爾特指出,目前,銀行再一次面臨利率上漲、長期固定利率資產貶值和存款存在壓力的局面。“因此,我們正在重蹈覆轍。回顧這條路,你可能會產生這樣合理的猜測:‘嗯,這開始變得與儲貸危機有許多相似之處。’”
致命的業務過度集中
儲貸危機和硅谷銀行與簽名銀行面臨的問題還有另外一個重要的相似之處,那就是業務過度集中于一個行業。儲貸機構幾乎完全專注于提供抵押貸款,在20世紀80年代,當利率上浮導致房價下跌時,這種策略開始出現問題。而硅谷銀行主要服務科技公司,這些公司通常沒有經受過考驗,也沒有盈利,因此當利率上漲和風投融資速度放慢時,它們就會面臨風險。Sanders Morris Harris公司的鮑爾稱,銀行業務過度集中于任何一個行業,“最終會導致金融過度,引發大災難”。
他還表示,硅谷銀行與儲貸機構的狀況有一個關鍵的相似之處,引發了最近的銀行擠兌。
他說:“儲貸危機時期的銀行貸款機構和硅谷銀行等科技貸款機構,將自己樹立成經濟中的典型,它們都心照不宣地要求貸款方將存款存在貸款機構。”他解釋道,為了讓儲戶繼續投資,儲貸機構和硅谷銀行都額外提供了許多華而不實的條件。“你不能強迫借款人將資金存到你的貸款機構,因為這是違法的,但你能夠通過不斷勸說,影響他們這樣做。”比如,硅谷銀行向客戶提供亞馬遜(Amazon)的云計算信用積分、DocuSign服務折扣,甚至高檔紅酒。
鮑爾表示,這種經營策略使硅谷銀行能夠迅速吸引存款,因為其儲戶集中,主要是人脈廣泛的科技公司開立的大額儲蓄賬戶。“擁有大額存款的儲戶在聽到銀行倒閉的傳聞后,選擇分散存款,突然之間,銀行的存款狀況從四分之三滿的杯子變成了只有八分之一滿。這時,銀行變得無力償債。”
一些關鍵區別
雖然儲貸危機和當前的銀行業動蕩有許多相似之處,但兩者之間還是存在一些重要的區別。或許最重要的區別是,現在的監管機構有能力介入危機,挽救局面。
1983年,在儲貸危機期間,監管機構估計,為了償付存在倒閉的貸款機構的有保險儲戶,大約需要250億美元。但美聯儲歷史學家表示,儲貸機構的保險基金、聯邦儲蓄和貸款保險公司僅有60億美元儲備資金。
科羅拉多大學丹佛分校(University of Colorado-Denver)的講師、Econ One Research的總經理邁克爾·J·奧蘭多對《財富》雜志表示:“當時,面對迅速惡化的問題,這些機構的存款保險嚴重不足,這影響了監管者的選擇。”但奧蘭多稱,現在,監管者有大量“滅火的手段”,至少在近期內可以幫助減少銀行倒閉產生的經濟影響。奧蘭多同時是美國聯邦儲備系統(Federal Reserve System)的研究經濟學家。
儲貸危機與硅谷銀行和簽名銀行破產之間的另外一個區別是最近銀行擠兌的速度。社交媒體和銀行業應用程序的流行,讓儲戶能夠快速發現銀行的問題,并取走資金。
科羅拉多州立大學(Colorado State University)的經濟學教授斯蒂芬·韋勒告訴《財富》雜志:“[硅谷銀行]的擠兌主要來自科技行業,科技行業的從業者精通社交媒體,而且他們有強大的能力在48小時內取走所有可用現金。而在儲貸危機期間,擠兌的時間長達數周、數月甚至數年。這是一個慢速崩潰過程。”
有專家甚至指出,硅谷銀行可能經歷了史上第一次因社交媒體導致的銀行擠兌,他們說,知名風險投資者曾經迅速警告投資組合公司取走存款。Bahnsen Group的首席投資官大衛·巴恩森對《財富》雜志表示,他認為“毫無疑問”,是強大的風險投資者“助長了銀行擠兌”。這是一個快速的過程。
后果:大規模整合
韋勒教授是區域經濟發展研究所(Regional Economic Development Institute)的聯席所長。他警告,在所有金融機構當中,最近的危機可能對小型銀行的影響最為嚴重。硅谷銀行倒閉暴露出聯邦存款保險公司有限的保險只能夠為小型金融機構兜底,無法為更具有系統重要性的機構提供保障。聯邦存款保險公司的保險對儲戶的保額不超過25萬美元。他說:“大銀行擁有小銀行不具備的優勢,”那就是幾乎“一定”會得到政府的全力救助。“大而不能倒,使大銀行擁有壓倒性的吸引力。”
自從儲貸危機爆發以來,小型社區銀行的數量持續減少。據聯邦存款保險公司統計,1980年,全美由聯邦存款保險公司承保的銀行超過14,000家,2021年卻不足4,500家。
韋勒表示,這是一個嚴重的問題。他在一項研究中分析了社區和區域銀行對美國經濟的積極影響,尤其是在大型金融機構覆蓋不足的農村地區。
2022年,韋勒與貝爾蒙特大學(Belmont University)的盧克·佩塔克以及威斯康辛大學麥迪遜分校(University of Wisconsin-Madison)的特莎·康羅伊聯合發表了一篇論文。韋勒發現,擁有更多社區銀行的地區“整體上區域經濟更繁榮,并且提高了區域經濟承受宏觀經濟沖擊的韌性。”社區銀行帶來的好處包括企業倒閉減少,房價更有彈性,就業增長更強勁。
他說:“我們的研究顯示,[資產規模]10億美元以下的社區銀行,實際上對于創業和就業增長至關重要,尤其是在美國農村地區。正是這些銀行,可能因為此次危機而最終倒閉。”
然而,今年3月21日,美國財政部的部長珍妮特·耶倫對游說團體美國銀行家協會(American Bankers Association)表示,如果“小型銀行機構”面臨“存款擠兌可能導致危機蔓延”,她可能會采取“類似措施”來阻止儲戶擠兌。
《財富》雜志采訪的多位專家稱,可悲的是,小銀行的悲劇是可以避免的。阿爾特曾經在儲貸危機后協助監管機構起草立法。他表示,他的建議在20世紀80年代末和90年代初經常被忽視,而且那些錯失的機會目前正在對美國經濟產生影響。
他提到曾經在立法中要求銀行測試加息環境下的資產負債表狀況。他說:“這個要求被寫入法律。但實際上沒有機構執行。現在,立法中依舊沒有與利率風險有關的內容。因此,這就是一條我們很快就會忘記的教訓。事實上,我們早已知道一直以來都存在監管空白,這應該引起監管機構的重視,但事實卻并非如此。”
在最近的銀行倒閉風波之后,回顧儲貸危機得到的教訓就是,監管機構、高管和投資者會忘記金融業歷史上最重要的教訓,并重蹈覆轍。
鮑爾說:“經濟記憶的半衰期約為三至五年。之后人們就會忘記以前的風險,重新開始盲目借貸的循環。”(財富中文網)
譯者:劉進龍
審校:汪皓
Samuel Clemens, also known as Mark Twain, didn’t live to see the bank runs and market crash of 1929, nor was he around for 1987’s “Black Monday,” the Great Recession of 2008, or the latest banking crisis centered on the demise of Silicon Valley Bank (SVB). But a famous aphorism often ascribed to Twain sums up the financial panics that have come and gone since his time: “History doesn’t repeat itself, but it often rhymes.”
The reverberations that have spread through the banking system after SVB’s collapse seem to rhyme very closely with a particular panic from the late 1980s: the savings and loan (S&L) crisis. Both then and now, the Federal Reserve was rapidly hiking interest rates to fight stubborn inflation. The ploy worked—and appears to be working again today—but at the cost of devaluing interest rate-sensitive assets, like the U.S Treasuries and mortgage-backed securities that make up a large portion of many banks’ balance sheets. Add to that lax regulations, executive mismanagement, and an overreliance on a single type of depositor, and a potential repeat of the nightmare S&L crisis is creating sleepless nights for many of today’s regional bank executives.
The memory of 2008 and the Great Financial Crisis is coloring regulators’ response to the new crisis, particularly with relaxations of the 2010 Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act being blamed for SVB’s demise. But the possibility of regional bank contagion after SVB’s collapse recalls the specifics of the S&L crisis more than anything, as the billionaire investors Ray Dalio and Larry Fink both pointed out soon after it started.
For his part, Fink wrote in his annual shareholder letter last week that “we don’t know yet” whether the consequences of the latest crisis “will cascade throughout the U.S. regional banking sector (akin to the S&L Crisis) with more seizures and shutdowns coming.” But like the S&Ls of the ‘80s, the recent failures of SVB, as well as Silvergate Bank and Signature Bank, add up to the loss of regional institutions that, taken together, posed such a systemic risk that D.C. put taxpayer money on the line.
The now-defunct SVB and Signature Bank also faced issues that the CEOs of S&Ls in the ‘80s couldn’t have imagined due to the rise of social media. But as George Ball, chairman of the investment firm Sanders Morris Harris, put it in an interview with Fortune:
“The case of SVB may be very different from the S&Ls in some ways, but the arithmetic behind it was timeless—long leverage, with depositors or lenders losing faith, creates instant catastrophe, no matter what.”
Fortune spoke with economists, former Fed officials, investment managers, and more about the similarities and differences between financial crises of the past and today’s banking instability. The combination of rising interest rates and the systemic risk posed by the failure of small and medium-sized regional financial institutions drew comparisons to the S&L crisis from every one of them. And it’s worth being alert to this rhyme of financial history because the S&L crisis saw more than 1,000 lenders go bust nationwide over a 15-year period between 1980 and 1995 during the S&L crisis, as the U.S. General Accountability Office has calculated, ultimately costing taxpayers more than $160 billion.
A brief history and a moral hazard
A short history lesson: Savings and loan associations were first established in Pennsylvania in 1831, when banks didn’t offer residential mortgages. These institutions, also called “thrifts,” allowed communities to band together to help each other purchase homes.
Many S&Ls came to provide lower mortgage rates than banks, but correspondingly paid out lower rates on deposits. The status of these lenders in the U.S. banking system grew over the coming years due to their low costs, and by 1932, the Federal Home Loan Bank Act was established to supervise the S&L industry with the goal of helping lower-income Americans achieve home ownership. Two years later, the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) was created to insure deposits at S&Ls as they expanded.
By 1980, there were almost 4,000 S&Ls nationwide with total assets of $600 billion—including roughly half of all outstanding U.S. home mortgages at the time. But when Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker took office in 1979, he was determined to slay what economists have now come to call “the Great Inflation.” In a model that current Fed Chair Jerome Powell seems to have taken to heart, Volcker jacked up interest rates with unprecedented speed and aggression, leading President Jimmy Carter to endure a brutal recession toward the end of his only term in office. Within a few years (and after another brief recession), a period of price stability called the “Great Moderation” set in, but not before everything changed for S&Ls.
As interest rates rose sharply, the value of the fixed rate assets—mainly mortgages—that were held by the S&Ls declined, said Konrad Alt, who had a front-row seat to the end of the S&L crisis as counsel to the U.S. Senate Banking Committee and later as Chief of Staff and Senior Deputy Comptroller at the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency between 1989 and 1996. “At the same time, the cost of their funding rose, so they had to pay more money to attract deposits. Eventually, they developed what we call negative spread,” which essentially means they all started to lose money and become insolvent.
Alt, who has since founded the investment firm Klaros Group, said that he was a young lawyer by the time he got involved in the S&L crisis, and what he saw “in almost every one of them was a lot of really sketchy behavior—very imprudent loans, other kinds of activities.” Just as with some of the more unsavory revelations about SVB giving out fine wines and all-expenses-paid ski trips to woo Bay Area clientele, S&Ls pulled in clients with “lending against racehorses, golf courses, and artwork” and lived lavish lifestyles—“the corporate jets, all that stuff was real.”
Alt said he thinks mismanagement at S&Ls was common during the late ‘80s because these were dying businesses that had the unwavering support of regulators—and S&L executives were well aware of that.
“If you have a business with no equity and no economic value, why not gamble? If you lose, the deposit insurer [FSLIC] takes over, and you didn’t have any money in it anyways, so you haven’t really lost anything. If you win, ‘Hey, that’s great, Bonanza,’” he said. “And so that kind of behavior became rampant in the S&L industry.”
If he was a bank supervisor now, Alt said he’d definitely worry about the “moral hazard” issue in which a government bailout of a failed bank incentivizes excessive risk-taking by its leadership. Bank owners and managers who know their business is insolvent—as appeared to be the case with SVB—essentially know they won’t be allowed to fail by the government. Alt said that fact could lead to an attitude where managers “throw the long bomb and take risks.”
A familiar macroeconomic equation
The U.S. economy’s reopening in 2021 after coronavirus vaccines became available coincided with the highest inflation since Volcker’s tenure in the ‘80s, and Powell has responded by raising rates faster than any of his predecessors in hopes of cooling the economy and quashing it. And just as in the 1980s, as interest rates have risen, the value of the fixed rate assets on banks’ balance sheets (Treasuries and mortgage-backed securities) has gone down. As a result, U.S. banks were sitting on over $600 billion in losses in their loan portfolios as of the end of 2022, according to the FDIC.
The deterioration of value was especially bad at SVB. By the end of last year, the bank had over 90% of its bond holdings in long-dated mortgage-backed securities that were yielding less than 2%. Rising interest rates meant those bonds were now worth a lot less, so when depositors flooded the bank in early March to ask for their money back amid fears it would collapse, SVB didn’t have enough cash on hand to give them.
Konrad Alt noted that banks are now once again in a situation where interest rates are rising, long-dated fixed rate assets are losing value, and deposits are under pressure. “So, we’re on track there. And if you look down that track, you might reasonably say, ‘Hmm, this could start to look a lot like the S&L crisis.’”
A deadly overconcentration
Another key similarity between the S&L crisis and the problems at SVB and Signature Bank is overconcentration on one sector. S&Ls almost entirely focused on providing mortgages, which led to problems when home values declined in the ‘80s amid rising interest rates. Meanwhile, SVB largely served tech companies that were often untested and unprofitable, leaving them at risk as rates rose and VC funding slowed. Ball, from Sanders Morris Harris, said that overconcentration by banks on any one sector will “ultimately create excesses that end up in catastrophe.”
He also noted that there was a key similarity between the situation at SVB and what happened to S&Ls that made the latest bank run happen fast.
“The bank lenders in the S&L era and the tech lenders personifying them in today’s economy—like at SVB—both tacitly required their lenders to keep their deposits with the lending organization,” he said, explaining that both the S&Ls and SVB offered lots of extra bells and whistles to keep depositors invested. “You can’t force a borrower to do that, it’s against the law, but you can use persuasion and influence them to do that.” For example, SVB handed out Amazon cloud computing credits, discounts on DocuSign services, and even fine wines to clients.
Ball argued that this way of doing business led deposits at SVB to be pulled quickly because its depositor base was so concentrated in large accounts of well-connected tech companies. “People with those big deposits looked to diversify them when they heard rumors, and then suddenly, the well was not three-quarters full, it was only one-eighth full. And at that point, you had insolvency.”
Some key differences
While the S&L crisis and the current era of banking instability may share many similarities, there are also a few key differences. Perhaps the most important of those is the ability of today’s regulators to step in and save the day.
In 1983, during the midst of the S&L crisis, regulators estimated it would cost roughly $25 billion to pay off the insured depositors at failed lenders. But the S&Ls’ insurance fund, FSLIC, had reserves of just $6 billion, according to Fed historians.
“Deposit insurance for those institutions back then was woefully inadequate for the scale of the problem as fast as it came, and that affected the choices of the regulators,” Michael J. Orlando, a lecturer at the University of Colorado-Denver and managing director of Econ One Research, told Fortune. But these days, said Orlando, who also served as a research economist in the Federal Reserve System, regulators have plenty of “water to bring to the fire,” which should help reduce the economic fallout from recent bank failures—at least in the near term.
Another thing that differentiates the S&L crisis from the failures at SVB and Signature was the speed of the latest bank runs. The rise of social media and banking apps has enabled depositors to quickly recognize when there is an issue with their bank and withdraw their funds.
“[SVB] was a run largely in the technology sector that’s full of people well versed in social media, and their ability to wipe out all of the available cash within 48 hours was really tremendous,” Stephan Weiler, professor of economics at Colorado State University, told Fortune. “Whereas, in the savings and loan crisis, it took weeks, months, years. It was kind of a crash in slow motion.”
Some experts have even argued that SVB could be the first social-media led bank run in history, noting that well-known venture capitalists had quickly warned their portfolio companies to pull their money. David Bahnsen, chief investment officer of The Bahnsen Group, told Fortune that he believes there is “no question” that powerful venture capitalists helped “foster a run on the bank.” Slow motion, this was not.
The fallout: The great consolidation
Prof. Weiler, who also serves as co-director of the Regional Economic Development Institute, warned that of all financial institutions, smaller banks are likely to be hurt the most by the latest crisis. SVB’s collapse exposed how limited FDIC insurance, which protects depositors up to $250,000, is for smaller institutions compared with more systemically important ones. “The big banks have something that the little banks don’t,” he said—a near “guarantee” of a full bailout. “Too big to fail makes the attraction of bigger banks pretty overwhelming.”
Smaller community banks have been declining in number ever since the S&L crisis. In 1980, there were more than 14,000 FDIC insured banks nationwide, but in 2021, there were less than 4,500, according to the FDIC.
Weiler says that’s a big problem, pointing to his research that breaks down the positive impacts that community and regional banks have on the U.S. economy, particularly in rural areas often underserved by larger institutions.
In a study published last year alongside Belmont University’s Luke Petach and the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Tessa Conroy, Weiler found that areas with more community banks have “improved regional economic prospects, both generally and in terms of their resilience to macroeconomic shocks.” Benefits include fewer business closures, more resilient home prices, and better employment growth.
“We’ve done studies that show that community banks that have [assets of] $1 billion or less are actually crucial to entrepreneurship and job growth, especially in rural America,” he said. “But it’s precisely those banks that may end up getting shut out because of this crisis.”
However, on Tuesday, Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen told the lobbying group the American Bankers Association that she could take “similar actions” to backstop depositors at “smaller institutions” if they “suffer deposit runs that pose the risk of contagion.”
The sad part is small banks’ pain was likely avoidable, according to multiple experts Fortune spoke with. Alt, who helped write legislation for regulators after the S&L crisis, said that his recommendations were often ignored in the late ’80s and early ’90s, and the U.S. economy is facing the repercussions of those missed opportunities today.
He gave the example of when he put into legislation a requirement for banks to test their balance sheets in a rising interest rate environment. “That was in statute. None of the agencies actually implemented that,” he said. “Today, there is still no interest rate risk component. So that was a lesson learned and quickly forgotten. And the fact is, we’ve known that this was a gap for a long time….regulators should have caught it, and they didn’t catch it.”
The takeaway from looking back at the S&L crisis in the wake of recent bank failures may well be that regulators, executives, and investors tend to forget the most important lessons from financial history and repeat the same mistakes.
“The half-life of economic memory is about three to five years,” Ball said. “After that, everyone becomes oblivious to old risks and the cycle of uninformed lending begins again.”